Psychology And Cognitive Science, Confirmation Bias ( Or...

In psychology and cognitive science, confirmation bias (or confirmatory bias) is a tendency to search for or interpret information in a way that confirms one s preconceptions, leading to statistical errors. It is a type of cognitive bias and represents an error of inductive inference toward confirmation of the hypothesis under study. Confirmation bias is a phenomenon wherein decision makers have been shown to actively seek out and assign more weight to evidence that confirms their hypothesis, and ignore or underweigh evidence that could disconfirm their hypothesis. As such, it can be thought of as a form of selection bias in collecting evidence. An individual might even seek out proof that further backs up this belief, while discounting examples that do not support this idea. Unlike other similar concepts such overconfidence bias or anchoring, confirmation biases impact how people gather information, but they also influence how people interpret and recall information. For example, people who support or oppose a particular issue will not only seek information that supports their beliefs, they will also interpret news stories in a way that upholds their existing ideas and remember things in a way that also reinforces these attitudes. Therefore, this concept is important because without seeking for objective facts, interpreting information in a way that only supports one’s existing beliefs, and only remembering details that uphold these beliefs, people often miss importantShow MoreRelatedCross-Cultural Assessment of Psychological Assessment Measures7333 Words   |  30 Pagesof the history of South Africa with regard to the misuse of Psychological Testing. Testing can never-the–less be a very useful way of obtaining objective information, economically and quickly about potential candidates when used fairly and without bias towards any particular individual or group (Bedell, Van Eeden and Van Staden 1999). Psychological Assessment is innately a contentious issue. Bedell, Van Eeden and Van Staden (1999) maintain that even in a heterogeneous population, tests are not alwaysRead MoreResearch Paradigm14392 Words   |  58 PagesEpistemology—the branch of philosophy dealing with knowledge and its justification Methodology—the identification, study, and justification of research methods Axiology—the branch of philosophy dealing with values and ethics Rhetoric—the art or science of language and oral and written communication Pragmatism Philosophical position that what works is what is important or â€Å"valid† FIGURE 2.1 Starting in the 1990s, many researchers rejected the incompatibility thesis and started advocatingRead MoreAre Social Media Replacing Traditional Media In Terms Of Brand Equity Creation10677 Words   |  43 Pagesbrands, one brand was randomly assigned to that participant. By limiting the choice of brands to those perceived on social media platforms as well as randomizing the actual brand that the participants evaluated in the survey, we avoided the possible bias that participants might chose a brand on the basis of a personal positive evaluation. Table I gives an overview of the sample demographics. Measurement procedure We exclusively used reflective measurements, where changes in a construct’s measures indicate

Media s Portrayal Of Islamic Extremists During The Middle...

After September 11, 2001, U.S. citizens were shocked that over 2,900 people were dead because of Islamic extremists (Kean, et al. National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States). More deaths occurred in the Paris and San Bernardino attacks. Tensions between the U.S. and Islamic extremists have not yet subsided. Americans receive information regarding Islamic extremists through the media, from which they form opinions on what the U.S.’s foreign policy with the Middle East should be, which affects military spending. To what extent has the media’s portrayal of Islamic extremists affected U.S. military spending and relations with the Middle East? Social and cultural aspects play a significant role in the media’s unflattering depiction of Islamic extremists, which correlates directly to military spending and relations with the Middle East. Since 9/11, when Arabs attacked the U.S. on behalf of Afghan Islamic extremists, relations with the Middle East have been tense, according to Thomas Kean and others in National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States† from the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States. Kean and others report that repercussions of the 9/11 attacks included homeland security improvements. Dov S. Zakheim, former U.S. Undersecretary of Defense and Chief Financial Officer, similarly discussed that relations worsened after 9/11 in September 11: A Decade Later What 9/11 Has Wrought†, which details the effectsShow MoreRelated Stereotyping of Arab Muslims in the New York Times for the Past Forty Years3589 Words   |  15 Pagespublics opinion of that group. Oth er communication media theorists say that only under extreme conditions will the negative stereotypes reflect the publics opinions of the portrayed minority group. The parallel theory between propaganda and stereotyping by the mass media is examined. Theorists including Thomson, (1977) Myers, (1992), related to mass media effects strongly agree claiming that repetitive and non-contradictive images in the media are an effective form of propaganda. The research samplesRead MoreA Critical Book Report on Lawrence Wrights the Looming Tower.3012 Words   |  13 Pagesunderstanding of the road to 9/11. Wrights personality driven account begins with a biography of Sayyid Qutb, who he contends founded the Al-Qaeda stream of modern Islamic fundamentalism. It is interesting to learn that Qutbs extremist philosophy, made famous in his manifesto Milestones that would later motivate hundreds of Islamic militants, was born not in Egypt or Saudi Arabia, but in America. After the execution of Qutb, Wright concentrates on two characters heavily influenced by the MuslimRead MoreIslamophobia in America Essay2004 Words   |  9 Pageshateful enough as to so, the mass media plays a vitals role in the [developing] minds of Americans; most dramatically in times of war or protest. I am overwhelmed with disgust when speaking on the (for lack of a better term) ludicrous behavior associated with people considered Islamophobes. For those who do not already know, Islamophobia is prejudice against, hated towards, or irrational fear of Muslims. Terminologically, Islamophobia came about in the late 1980â €™s; yet this prejudice against hatredRead MoreThe Movement s Ideology And The Way It Understands Its Role3752 Words   |  16 Pagestheir ideology and their portrayal within the organisation and the outside world. The formation of Al- Qaida is believed to have occurred after the Soviet –Afghan wars (1979-1989) (MI5).The word â€Å"Al – Qaida† means â€Å"the base†. This idea occurred after the Iraq invasion of 1990, he opposed the presence of foreign military force in Saudi Arabia. The group leader Osama bin Laden participated in the war role, as financier and coordinator he is thought to have his extremist views which provided theRead MoreEssay Muslims in France1993 Words   |  8 Pageswidely practiced religion in France, with the country being home to the largest Muslim population in Europe. Undoubtedly, France has faced various challenges in its attempt to achieve integration between its citizens and several issues have arisen during the last few decades. In order to comprehend the complexity of issues related to assimilation and integration, it is important to understand the different aspects of these issues and identify the reasons behind them to provide the fundamental basisRead MoreOffensive Advertising : Advertising, Muslims, And Consumer Behaviour9514 Words   |  39 Pagescommunity’ are a sign of controversial advertising. The emphasis in the above statement is on offensiveness , which Beard (2003, 2008) sees as resulting from campaigns that utilise messages or tactics that shock, offend or harm. While Harker and Cassim s (2002) and Day (1991) view that advertising is controversial when it breaches acceptable standards of society. And according to the UK ASA (ASA, 2002), controversial advertising copy or content is that which uses strong, vulgar language, graphic, upsettingRead More The Impact on Culture of Islam and Christianity Essay3721 Words   |  15 Pagesit was when at its genesis. The lack of institutionalized religion provided by the government has allowed a wide variety of religions to prosper within the borders, creating both more religious tolerance and more variations within each religion. Middle East ern culture, on the other hand, is still strictly religious because of a continuing regulation of religion by the government in power (Jatava, Religions in Modern Society: 136). Culture and religion seem to go hand in hand, as people’s actionsRead MoreUnderstanding Religious Identity and the Causes of Religious Violence7269 Words   |  30 Pagesreligion’s ambivalent nature and suggested that it contains, in varying degrees, elements that contribute to both war and peace.4 Consider, for example, the deep rooted and protracted conflict between Israeli Jews and Palestinian Muslims in the Middle East. While the conflict seems embedded in religious ideology, it has political and psychological overtones as well. Among the underlying causes of the conflict are a multitude of factors including deprivation of basic human needs; competition for scarceRead MoreOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made o n Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 Pageswhich were spread ever more broadly among different social groups—including women, laborers, INTRODUCTION †¢ 3 ethnic minorities, and gays—made strides that were perhaps greater than all of those achieved in previous history combined. During the same time span, however, state tyranny and brutal oppression reached once unimaginable levels—in large part due to the refinement or introduction of new technologies of repression and surveillance and modes of mass organization and control.

Aquaintancerape Essay Example For Students

Aquaintancerape Essay Its 3:20 am. on a Friday morning, and pitch black out. The only things visible are the tree branches and pavement shining from yellow streetlights that carve out a path from the parking lot to the back door of my building. Living on campus at Towson I shouldve owned mace, but I clutched my car key instead, pointed outward ready to stab the eye of anyone deciding to come out of the dark after me. The brisk walk up the hill seems to take half an hour. Finally under the bright lights of the overhang I swipe my card quickly to get inside. The door bolt locks behind me with a loud click. Im safe. This is the typical scenario were one would assume a rape to take place. When people think about rape, they usually think of a stranger with a knife hiding in the bushes. He waits for a woman to walk by and then attacks. However this is far from the truth. The majority of victims are raped by individuals they know or who are acquaintances. This type of rape is known as acquaintance rape. Eighty percent of all rapes are, in fact, acquaintance rapes. (CallRape) One kind of acquaintance rape is called date rape, in which a man and a woman go out on a date together and forces her to have sex when she does not want to. Date rapes typically occur when a woman is alone with a man. If a woman goes to a mans room or apartment, or even get into his car alone, she is vulnerable. Date rapes can also occur when others are relatively close by; for example, they can happen in an upstairs bedroom while fifty people attend a party on the first floor. Most girls dont think to reach for mace or car key s in these situations. They dont think about easy escape routes or whos within shouting distance. We shouldnt have to. Unfortunately it is an issue that needs to be discussed. Awareness is the most effective weapon women have against this horrible and often unreported crime. Many of the attitudes, beliefs, and mistaken ideas about rape have been with us for centuries. By looking at myths, such as women ask for it, and women secretly enjoy rape, from a historical perspective, can lead us for better understanding how they evolved. Much stems back to the idea that women are still seen as the property of men, and are protected as such. Men and women are still taught to occupy very different roles in todays world. Men are usually in power positions, and women are seen as passive. This socialization process is changing, but slowly. Even in early age, boys are taught to be more aggressive than girls are. They are expected to enjoy playing sports. Girls are expected to play less aggressive sports. Boys are taught that they should get anything in their ways, even if it means using violence. Girls are taught to stay away from conflicts. Boys are sometimes taught to have a lot of girlfriends, and not to get tied down by one girl when they are young. They are supposed to play the field. Girls are often taught that they should have a steady boyfriend. They are taught to guard their reputations. All of these childhood lessons come into play in date rape for obvious reasons. (Mufson et all, 1993). Rape is defined as a forced sexual intercourse against the will of the victim (Parrot, 1988). Rape is a violent act, not a sexual act. The myth that men who rape women are sexually pathological has begun to be dispelled and replaced with an understanding that rape is an act of anger, power and control rather than lust. Rape can happen to anyone. Women from different cultures, races, ages, and economic level are all vulnerable. So no matter who you are or where you live. Most rape, and specifically most acquaintance rape, happens between the ages of fifteen and twenty-five. Because this is the time when young women are most likely to date, it is therefore are most vulnerable age of date rape, though acquaintance rape is not limited to dating situations. It may